Extreme Ice Essay

In this documentary film, â€Å"Extreme Ice,† produced by PBS TV, 2009, James and scientists shows how glacier ice is melting. James Balog, a photographer, wanted to document and help scientists to understand mountain monumental changes. So he surveyed the ice and went to the places such as Alaska, Green land, etc. The project team which called â€Å"Extreme ice† discovered that there were very serious problems. The sun was the most reason of ice melting. But now, such as Industrial revolution and fossil fuels output green house gases alter the planet. For example, Columbia bay where is the fastest melting ice in the world, the ice is going to be collapsed faster than before. Scientists eventually discover about the mystery of the fast-melting ice at Columbia Bay. They announced that high temperature create more water and the water is melting ice because high pressure water cracked ice open and collapse. So Dr. Tad Pfeffer who is the one of the researchers suspected that if mountain glaciers are continuous melting, then people like living in Asia could not drink water. Frozen ice core record also support the reason. They have periodical ice in National Ice Core Lab in Colorado and it can distinguish between bubbles and pack of air. Late 1990s, Greenland is the hardest so far. But when they visited there, they figured out so many water drained out and it goes booming ice. Approximately 100million people will see to exist the melting ice on coastal countries such as Florida, Bangladesh, and Vietnam. That’s because the film â€Å"Extreme Ice† might mean quickly disappearing the ice and land increasingly.

Ethical Analysis of Citigroup

Company Assessment: An Analysis of CitiGroup 1 Company Assessment: An Analysis of CitiGroup Introduction With origins dating back to 1812, Citigroup (Citi) is a global diversified financial services holding company providing both individuals and institutions with a broad range of financial products and services. These services include; consumer banking and credit; corporate and investment banking; securities brokerage; transaction services; and wealth management.Headquartered in Manhattan, NY, Citi currently has over 260,000 employees servicing 200 million customer accounts in more than 160 countries around the globe. Citi is organized into two divisions; Citicorp and Citi Holdings. Citicorp manages the consumer and institutional core client business, while Citi Holdings manages the brokerage and asset management divisions. Based on financial data obtained from the Citi website, the core st business (i. e. Citicorp), represents 92. 9% of the $19. 4 billion ($US) of the 1 quarter 2012 revenue.The total revenues of Citicorp are geographically diversified across the globe with North America representing 40% of the total, Asia at 22%, Latin America at 20% and Europe, Middle East and Africa (EMEA) accounting for the remaining 18% (Citi Financials, 2012) Over its 200 year history, Citi has been a leading innovator in financial services starting in the 1920’s by becoming the first major U. S. bank to offer compound interest on savings accounts. Also, through the acquisition of Second National Bank, Citi has the distinction of being the first bank in New York to provide separate banking services for women.Further innovations include; offering unsecured personal loans and customer checking accounts in 1928 and 1936 respectively (Citi Timeline, 2012). Citi’s original mission of offering traditional banking services evolved as they grew, however, since the financial crisis of 2008, Citi has been selling off many of the non-core operations to refocus on the t raditional banking model. The refocused mission as stated on the corporate website is: â€Å"We strive to create the best outcomes for our clients and customers with financial solutions that are simple, creative and responsible. (Citi, 2012) The purpose of this paper is to conduct a review and overall ethical assessment of Citi which will include an overview of the mission, vision and values, ethics and compliance codes, leadership, corporate social responsibility as well as the corporate governance structure. Mission, Vision and Values Clicking on the â€Å"Our Company† link of the Citi website, you are immediately drawn to the bolded text stating the corporate vision: â€Å"160 Countries. 1 Vision. Citi works tirelessly to provide consumers, corporations, governments and institutions with a broad range of financial products and services.We strive to create the best outcomes for our clients and customers with financial solutions that are simple, creative and responsible. à ¢â‚¬  (Citi, 2012) It is clear that Citi has a vision that places them as the global bank focused on client service, innovation and financial responsibility. Expanding upon the vision statement is the mission statement of Citi and the principles that guide them. The Mission statement is: â€Å"Meeting the World’s Challenges. Seizing its Greatest Opportunities† (Citi Mission, 2012).The four key principles that guide the company as they endeavor to deliver on their vision and mission are; Common Purpose; Ingenuity; Leadership; and Responsible Finance. Based on the stated vision, mission and principles, in my opinion, Citi can be described as a focused team, rewarded based on talent and merit, operating in an innovative culture with one clear goal to deliver transparent and prudent financial products globally. I consider the written vision, mission and guiding principles of Citi to be quite inspiring.Ethics and Compliance Codes In early 2005, Charles Prince, then CEO of Citi announced a bold strategy to transform the financial giant that was Citi. His plan, known as the â€Å"Five Point Ethics Plan†, was designed to; improve ethical training; focus on talent and development; integrate ethics into performance appraisals and compensation; improve communications; and strengthen ethical controls. (Restoring Ethics, 2012) As the successor of Sandy Weill, who, Johnson (2012) suggests typifies the ethically neutral leader (p. 19), Prince faced considerable skepticism on whether his plan could work in such a large and complex organization that had a history of significant regulatory scrutiny, and was linked to some of the biggest scandals in corporate history (e. g. Worldcom). While Prince had some critics, he also had some support. In the January 28, 2005 edition of BusinessWeek Online, Prince was described as a smart, logical thinker and another quote made by an analyst was†¦Ã¢â‚¬Å"I believe that non-charismatic Prince is going to be a more p ositive force at Citigroup than the other three charismatic CEOs going back to the 1960s. (Restoring Ethics, 2012) I believe he vision that Prince delivered after taking over from Weill, continues to be embraced by the current Citi CEO, Vikram Pandit as well as the Board of Directors. One of the key responsibilities of the Citi Board of Directors is to review and approve the Citi Code of Conduct (the â€Å"Code†). The Code outlines Citi’s principles, values and standards of practice for all employees of 2 Citi and as such can be viewed as Citi’s ethics code. Employees are expected to read and sign the Code, not necessarily as a condition of employment, but as a formalized agreement to abide by the standards of behavior outlined therein.Although not a formal contract of employment, the formal approach to signing the Code can be viewed as being integrated into HR practices. A point of interest is that Citi also strengthens the employee requirement to abide by the code by stating that even if an employee doesn’t return a signed copy, they are still bound by its terms and conditions. In fact, in the introduction to the Code, Citi is clear that failure to adhere to the Code can result in immediate termination of employment. The latest revision to the Code was made in 2011.The code is available in 26 different languages. While in the past, employees had periodic training on the Code, it appears that the training was ad hoc, but according to the Corporate Citizenship Report, in early 2012, Citi rolled out a formalized ethics training program for all employees. In addition to the Code that exists for all employees, there is an additional Code of Ethics that applies solely to the senior financial executives (CEO, CFO, etc†¦) and financial administrative staff.While it may appear that this is a sign of a higher ethical standard at Citi, as with the NYSE requirement for a firm-wide code of ethics, Sarbanes Oxley mandates a requirement for a separate Code of Ethics for senior executives. In reading both the firm-wide Code as well as the Code of Ethics for the senior executives, it’s interesting to note that the Code of Ethics reads like a very compliance based document, while the firm-wide Code reads more like a call to action for all employees to act with the utmost integrity. In fact, the word integrity appears 9 times in a relatively short document.In all fairness to Citi, they do specify that the Code of Ethics should be considered a supplement to the firm-wide Code and they provide a link to the Code as part of the document. Citi also has a set of ethical principles that applies to suppliers. In short, Citi expects that suppliers adhere to the same high standards of practice that governs Citi. The key areas that the principles apply to are; ethical business practices (Integrity, transparency and community engagement); human rights in the workplace; environmental sustainability; and management systems and implementation.Further information on these principles is available at http://www. citigroup. com/citi/citizen/people/diversity/supplierprinciples. htm. One final point regarding the ethical policies of Citi would be that they operate a 24/7 ethics hotline where employees can report ethical concerns and remain anonymous to the extent that the law will allow. While it is unclear if the hotline is operated independently of Citi, (it appears as if it is not) there is a strong focus on confidentiality and although I was unable to identify the name of the individual, the Code identifies that Citi has an ethics officer.Leadership It is the responsibility of a leader to establish and foster the organizational climate. The leader’s ability to cast shadow or shed light will permeate throughout an organization and ultimately shape the culture. In short, regardless of who is named the formal ethics officer, the leader of the organization is charged with that duty. Citi is managed by an executive team of 24 senior leaders from key regions and divisions across Citigroup's global network. While the ethnic origins of the executive are not specifically mentioned, there appears to be a wide range of ethnic backgrounds on the executive committee.Unlike the Board of Directors however, the executive committee has only 1 woman, Cece Stewart who is the president of US, Consumer and Commercial Banking. Citi maintains a compensation philosophy that attempts to align compensation with their overall Mission statement. The key objectives of this philosophy are to; enhance shareholder value; attract talent; recognize contributions; manage risk; provide independent oversight; and transparency to all stakeholders. You can visit http://www. citigroup. com/citi/investor/data/comp_phil_policy. df? ieNocache=340 for further information on Citi’s compensation policy. Some evidence to support the integrity of Citi’s compensation practices would be that, according to the 2011 Proxy Statement, as part of the process for making incentive awards for 2011, the Personal and Compensation committee considered the April 2011 â€Å"say on pay† vote which received as 92. 9% favorable. Perhaps the vote was biased upwards as a result of Pandit’s decision to only accept a â€Å"total† compensation package of $1 for 2010, and most of 2009?While I was unable to find any concise data that represents the pay gap between the top executives and the front line employees, I am pretty confident that for all of 2010, and the better part of 2009, the CEO was the lowest paid employee of Citi. The table on the following page provides some compensation data for the past 3 years for the key senior executives of Citi. 3 Change in Value of Deferred All Other Compensation Compenstion ($) ($) 0 0 0 73,047 51,995 49,117 0 0 0 0 14,700 0 3,750 14,700 9,800 14,700 14,700 9,800 14,700 14,700 Executive Member Year Salary ($) 1,671,370 1 125,001 500,000 500,000 416,667 500,000 500,000 500,000 500,000Bonus ($) 5,331,452 0 0 2,200,000 Stock Awards ($) 0 0 0 Option Awards ($) 7,839,581 0 0 Total ($) 14,857,103 1 128,751 7,160,916 4,728,462 5,063,817 12,984,481 9,509,800 11,276,454 11,354,536 0 0 11,446,900 10,116,895 10,400,007 Vikram Pandit CEO John Gerspach CFO John Havens COO Brian Leach Chief Risk Officer Manuel Medina-Mora CEO Latin America 2011 2010 2009 2011 2010 2009 2011 2010 2009 2011 2,333,333 2,039,836 4,166,667 4,583,333 4,750,000 2,719,781 9,000,000 10,327,374 434,380 5,400,000 2,039,836 5,000,000 3,400,000 2011 2010 2009 546,966 546,966 546,966 4,181,214 0 0 3,998,939 2,719,781 7,450,911 0 9,328,010 361,984 2,119,018 163,047 0 0 0 Source: taken from the 2011 Citi Proxy Report While on the surface, multimillion dollar compensation packages may appear egregious, however, for each of the executives above, approximately 50% of the total compensation package is deferred and/or exists under a multiyear vesting provision that is not only tied to tenure at Citi, it is directly tied to the performance of the organization. For 2011, there does appear to be a â€Å"traditional† pay gap between the CEO and the other â€Å"C’s† and I suspect that the gap widens significantly as you move down to the front line workers.By looking at just the total cash (salary and bonus) component of the compensation packages that range from a low of $2. 5 million to a high of $7 million, many people will undoubtedly feel several of the other condemning emotions. But to add a little perspective, for 2011, Citi’s charitable giving was more than 2 times the value of the total (cash and deferred) executive compensation of the individuals above. Also, at a total of $6. 4 billion, the 2011 commitment to climate change initiatives represented over 8% of Citi’s 2011 revenues, and almost 60% of net income.I must admit, besides a little wallet envy, I feel mostly admiration for the work, both social and economic that t he leadership of Citi has done that started in 2005, was derailed during the financial crisis, and has continued over the past few years. Based on this evidence, I would challenge an assertion that the current management is hoarding rewards at the expense of all other stakeholders. When Prince took over leadership of Citi in 2005, his calm, intellectual demeanor was quite the opposite of the â€Å"larger than life† charismatic CEO that preceded him.Since taking over from Prince in 2007, Pandit appears to have followed by example and has demonstrated some remarkable unselfish actions as he navigated Citi through the biggest financial crisis since the Great Depression. Despite the critics of the financial industry, Citi, through sound leadership, ranks well on the triple bottom line accounting metrics that forms the foundation of Corporate Social Responsibility. Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) One of the biggest criticisms of CSR reporting is that it is simply a public re lations tool designed as window dressing to improve image.After the financial crisis of 2008, no other industry would have as many critics as the financial industry. To provide a little evidence of the integrity of an organization’s CSR claims may help st soothe the critics. Since the early part of the 21 century, Citi has been consistently been a constituent company of the Dow Jones World and North America Sustainability Indexes as well as the FTSE 4Good Index, and in 2011, Citi also became a component of the STOXX Global ESG Leaders indices. It is clear that the CSR activities of Citi are being recognized outside the organization and may have a little more credibility than window dressing.Citi defines its Corporate Social Responsibility framework as Global Citizenship. The three key focus areas of their citizenship efforts are; delivering financial solutions at affordable costs, sustaining the environment 4 and valuing Citi employees. Progress towards these three focus area s are provided as a summary page within the Global Citizenship report, but also as separate publication (attached as Appendix A). There are four key metrics for Financial Inclusion performance indicator. First, they provide charitable contributions (Strategic Giving), which at $121. 9 million for 2011 (1. % of net income), and represents an average annual growth rate of 13% since the end of the financial crisis in 2008. Second, is Small Business Lending, which at almost $8 billion for 2011, has grown by 75% since 2009, and actually surpassed the 2011 goal of $7 billion. nd The third metric is the provision of affordable housing lending, which at $2. 0 billion, places Citi, for the 2 consecutive year, the top affordable housing lender in the US. The final metric under Financial Inclusion is Global Microfinance. In 2011, Citi has provided microloans to almost one million lenders of which 92% of loans where to women.Under sustaining the environment performance indicator, Citi includes metrics for e-communications, clean energy, greenhouse gas emissions and using ESRM screening criteria for financial transactions. As one of the world’s leading credit card companies, Citi’s movement towards paperless statements has, at 29% penetration (2011), doubled since 2008. Under the clean energy metric, in 2007, Citi announced a 10 year, $50 billion commitment to activities directed at mitigating climate change. As of the end of 2011, 5 years in to the program, 73% of the total has been committed.Under the greenhouse gas emissions metric, in 2005, Citi announced a 10 year plan for a 25% reducing in greenhouse gas emissions. As of 2011, there has been a 13. 6% percent reduction since the 2005 baseline. In 2011, the integration of environmental and social factors into the traditional risk management screens for project financing covered over 400 projects globally. Citi appears to have a significant focus on environmental concerns through written policies and state ments as well as real action. Further information on Citi’s position on the environment and their ESRM polices can be found at http://www. itigroup. com/citi/environment/ The final area covered under the report card is the metrics that cover the way Citi values their employees. The key metrics are; training; satisfaction; diversity; and employee volunteering. Citi has a very diverse workforce, and though 61 network groups consisting of 15,000 employee members in 18 locations around the world, Citi encourages employee diversity and support. Employee satisfaction has been increasing since the end of the financial crisis and at 73% satisfaction for 2011; it represents an overall 10% increase since 2009.It is unclear whether the increase in a result of simply happy to have a job in a tough economy, or true job satisfaction, in any event, Citi appears to have a more satisfied workforce. Employee training has seen a remarkable increase since the 2008 financial crises. Training acti vities cover areas such as, leadership, management, product and compliance and since 2008; training hours have increased by over 80% at 38. 4 hours per year per employee. Employees of Citi provided almost 800,000 hours of volunteering activities during 2011, almost 30% growth over 2010.It seems that giving back to the community not only is evidenced by financial metrics but also by the employee’s action. Although Citi’s key performance indicators focus on; Financial Inclusion; Environmental Sustainability; and Valuing our Employees, the Global Citizenship report is quite extensive and can be viewed as a supplement to the Citi Annual Report. In addition to the three key focus areas covered above, the report also covers corporate governance, which is covered in the section that follows, as well as, how Citi serves the customer and maintains sustainable and diverse supply chain relationships.The report outlines both Citi’s achievements as well as the challenges the y face and breaks down Citizenship on a regional basis. In guiding their citizenship activities, Citi uses a stakeholder engagement approach to and list their stakeholders as; Customers; Investors; Employees; Regulators; Suppliers; Community Leaders; Non-Governmental Organizations (NGO’s); Socially Responsible Investors; Media; and Competitors. The communication channel used for each stakeholder and examples are included as Appendix B.Corporate Governance Corporate Governance has been defined as â€Å"The framework of rules and practices by which a board of directors ensures accountability, fairness, and transparency in a company's relationship with its stakeholders (financiers, customers, management, employees, government, and the community). † (Governance, 2012). As an appendix to the annual proxy statement, Citi provides the Citigroup Inc. Corporate Governance Guidelines. Consistent with the overall corporate mission, the corporate governance mission is†¦Ã¢â‚¬ Citigroup Inc. the â€Å"Company†) aspires to the highest standards of corporate governance and ethical conduct: doing what we say; reporting results with accuracy and transparency; and maintaining full compliance with the laws, rules and regulations that govern the Company’s businesses. † (Citi Governance, 2012). This comprehensive document outlines the guidelines and policies with respect to the responsibilities, term, expected qualifications, and compensation of the Board and the committees thereof.Of notable mention in the governance policy would be the restriction against interlocking directorates, the requirement for personal stock ownership, and the annual review and assessment of board performance conducted by the Nomination, Governance and Public Affairs Committee. 5 One shortfall of the policy would be the lack of any set term for a board member. While there are two schools of thought with respect to fixed term appointments, in my opinion, the advantag e of bringing in fresh ideas with new board members would outweigh any potential loss of knowledge that would exit with an entrenched board member.I believe staggered board appointments with fixed term would be an enhancement to the Citi corporate governance policy. As mentioned in the Ethics and Compliance Codes section above, as a requirement to list on the NYSE, a company is required to have a formal code of ethics. In addition to this requirement, the NYSE also requires a minimum standard for the independence of directors. To meet the regulation, Citi would need a minimum of 9 independent directors. At the end of 2011, 11 of the 13 member board were independent. The two connected members were Pandit, and the Citi Chairman, Michael O’Neill.The remaining board members consist of a diverse group of active and retired business professionals, a philanthropic foundation president, a former state federal reserve bank official, a leader from the investment management community as well as Ivey league academics. Although only 3 of the board members are women, almost 40% of the members are visible minorities which also includes the Chairman and the CEO of Citi. Simply put, the Board of Directors of Citi is comprised of a very comprehensive representation of their stakeholder groups as identified in Appendix B.As of 2011, there are 5 standing committees of the Board: Audit; Risk Management and Finance; Executive; Personnel and Compensation; and Nomination, Governance and Public Affairs. A separate Charter exists for each committee that outlines the mission, duties and requirements regarding independence of the committee members. The Audit and Risk management committee is comprised of all independent directors. O’Neill is the current Chair of the Executive as well as the Personnel and Compensation Committees (non-voting) and he sits as a voting member of theNomination, Governance and Public Affairs Committee. Among other roles, the Nomination, Governance and Public Affairs Committee is responsible for the environmental sustainability and stakeholder engagement activities of Citi. Since 2005, non-employee directors receive $75,000 per year plus a deferred stock award valued at $150,000 on the date of issuance with a 2 year vesting period. With the requirement to own stock of Citi, as well as the deferred vesting of the majority of the compensation they will receive, directors of Citi are incented to act in the best interest of the organization.SEC Investigations As a publicly traded, multinational, diversified financial services organization, incorporated in the U. S. , it should not come as any surprise that in the course of their business dealings, both the organization and the individual staff of Citi will be subject to SEC litigations and investigations on a frequent basis. In fact, a search on the SEC website (http://www. sec. gov/litigation. shtml), and filtering the search parameters to include only â€Å"Litigation† an d â€Å"Regulatory Actions† you will actually find too many to list.In fact, since January 1, 2005, there have been a total of 284 Regulatory Actions and 140 Litigations that has Citi named. It would be quite misleading to state that all litigations listed Citi as the defendant, however from my brief review of some of the search results there appears to be complaints related to the accounting treatment of credit derivatives, fair value misstatements of sub-prime mortgage exposure, many of which listed most of the financial services industry. There was however one interesting investigation made in 2008 that questioned the independence of the Board of Directors.While I can’t comment too much on the ethical leadership of the firm leading up to the financial crisis, evidence such as the highly publicized investigations, along with the involvement in Worldcom and other major financial collapses, certainly cast a shadow on the past activities. However, during the tenure of t he current CEO, as well as his predecessor, the Board of Directors appear to have addressed many of the high level governance ethical shortcomings that were past investigations by the SEC.Conclusion Perhaps the most difficult aspect of conducting a review of an organization is coming to a definitive stance, based on concrete evidence, on the degree of ethical culture that exists inside the organization. Without living inside an organization, how can you state that ethical conduct permeates across all aspects of the firm activities? Operating in an industry that has undoubtedly has the highest level of public cynicism regarding ethical conduct, how could anyone take the stance that any financial services company scores well from any ethical standpoint?Despite this challenge, my impression from this review is that Citi does indeed rank well. Since taking over the firm in 2007, carrying on from Prince’s â€Å"Five Point Ethics Plan†, Pandit, has lead the firm back on firm er financial ground by shedding much of the troubled assets and refocusing the operation more towards a traditional banking model. Despite participating in the TARP and subsequently paying back all funds borrowed, under Pandit’s leadership, Citi has become one of the best capitalized banks in the U.S. He won high 6 praise from public opinion by accepting a total compensation package of $1 for most of 2009 and all of 2010, becoming undoubtedly, the lowest paid employee of Citi. Those types of unselfish acts, despite his personal net worth, should be viewed as a sign of an admirable leadership style. The critics statement that he doesn’t need/deserve the money is, in my opinion, ludicrous and shouldn’t overshadow what is a truly admirable action.An ethical culture starts with an ethical leader posed ready to lead by example and in my opinion, by his example, Mr. Pandit ranks very well. In addition to the profit motive, Citi approaches it business with a demonstrat ed commitment to environmental and social key performance metrics, engaging with all stakeholders, going above and beyond the simple legal requirements and acting as an agent of moral influence with suppliers.Adding to this ethical framework a very committed CEO, a strong board representing stakeholders, and ethics training, it’s hard to argue that the firm lacks a robust ethical framework. It appears as if the vision of Prince continues to be embraced by Pandit and Citi’s current leadership. While it may be a long road ahead in the court of public opinion, Citi appears to be on the right track to shed the degree of cynicism the financial industry has, but like most future outcomes, only time will tell. 7 References

A Nurse is a Nurse

The public and professional images of nursing and the portrayal of nurses in the media have a great impact on several work-related issues – how health care as a collaborative enterprise is provided to patients, the extent that nurses’ work is valued, the participation of the nurse in healthcare team decision-making, the visibility of nurses in shaping national health care and the effect of these images on nurses’ job performance (Fletcher, 2007.Most researchers agree that although there have been improvements in the image of nursing, the portrayal today is still largely negative – an issue that has been raised by nurses for the past century. Gender issues seem to be at the core of this situation.Other disciplines, specifically the medical profession, view nurses based on certain qualities. In a study by Weinberg, Miner and Rivlin (2009) on the perspectives of medical residents on working with nurses, nurses were trusted and regarded as colleagues depending on how competent, congenial and hardworking the residents perceived them to be (p.37).This implies that the collaborative approach does not always permeate the nurse-medical resident relationship despite nursing practice being elevated into a profession that is equal to other health disciplines. To be respected as a colleague requires a condition – nurses must first have to prove that they possess the qualities expected of them.Meanwhile, the media reinforces the image of nurses as a health worker that is lower in status than physicians or as other concepts other than being a professional. In a literature review conducted by Fletcher (2007) concerning the media portrayal of nurses, the author found that television shows, novels, films and advertisements then and now mainly portray nurses in four categories, namely â€Å"as ministering angel, battleaxe, physician handmaiden and naughty nurse† – negative images because these do not capture the reality of nursing (p.208).As an acute nursing shortage looms ahead, the campaign to improve the image of nursing, in order to attract more students into the profession, yielded a positive outcome. A recent Gallup survey on professional ethics and honesty found that 84% of Americans agreed that nurses are the most trusted professionals (Singleton, 2009). The Gallup survey image of nurses represents a positive development because nurses were viewed as professionals who are bound by a code of ethics and who adhered to such a code.Both the positive and negative images of nursing seem to reflect the unequal power relationship between men and women in society where women are viewed as either sex objects or as domestic partners. The end product is a stereotypical view of women’s roles as subservient to men.Along with this role are the associated feminine traits ranging from obedience, hard work, compassion and congeniality to promiscuity. The physician-nurse relationship reflects these stereotypes as physicians are disproportionately male and while nurses are disproportionately female. As a male-dominated profession, the physician’s work is highly recognized and valued while the nurse’s work is undervalued and unrecognized.Because of the stereotypes reinforced by media, the public largely identifies nurses only with bedside care and with carrying out physician’s orders. Most would think that since the work involved seems trivial, nurses do not need to obtain a 4-year BSN degree. They do not see the complex daily responsibilities of the nurse that requires education, training and autonomy or the current scope of nursing practice. As such, they fail to appreciate the significant impact of nurses’ work on patient health and outcomes.Although men have enrolled in nursing, it is still mainly a women’s profession and as Lavinia Dock (cited in Fletcher) aptly put it, â€Å"the status of nursing in all countries and at all times depends on the status of women† (2007, p.210). Because the nurse is a woman in a caring profession, expectations of her relate to female gender roles as well. Hence, further improvements in the status of women will similarly uplift the status of nursing.

The growing role of PM Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

The growing role of PM - Essay Example Project management is the planning, organizing, directing and controlling of company resources for a relatively short-term objective that has been established to complete specific goals and objectives. For planning and organizing the resources, Program evaluation and review technique(PERT) and Critical Path Method (CPM) are widely used techniques for better planning and control in project management. It forms the basis for all planning and predicting and these techniques provide the management with the ability to plan for the best possible use of resources to achieve a goal within the stipulated time and allotted budget. These techniques which were used for defense during the World War II, are now used by business managers across the world to get a visibility of the activities involved in the project so that repetition of activities is reduced. It helps the management to handle the uncertainties involved in the program by analyzing how much time is required for each activity and which activity is crucial for the timely completion of the project. It is useful for the management to collect all the relevant information for making decisions. The major deficiency of other methods such as the Gantt, milestone or bubble chart is the inability to show the interdependencies between event s and activities, which is overcome in the network analysis. The foremost advantage of PERT is that it requires planning in detail to create a network of activities. Network development and critical path analysis reveal interdependencies and problem areas that are not very clear if other methods are used. The technique lays its focus on determining where the greatest effort should be made for a project to stay on schedule. The next greatest advantage of network analysis is that the business manager can know about the probability of meeting specified deadlines by development of alternative plans. Another advantage of this analysis is that we can evaluate the effect of changes in the program. For example this

Role of Creative Management in the Improvement of Entrepreneurial Essay

Role of Creative Management in the Improvement of Entrepreneurial Activities - Essay Example Current research focuses – as already explained above – on creative management and its role in the improvement of entrepreneurial activities around the world. However, in order for the above issue to be appropriately explored it is necessary to examine a series of supplementary (or else secondary) issues like the following ones: a) is there a specific mode of creative management applied internationally? b) which is the role of innovation in the whole effort? c) which are the strategies adopted by the firms regarding the other entrepreneurial sectors (e.g. the HR department) when creative management is applied in all organizational activities? and d) are there specific methods for the measurement of the effectiveness of the creative management mode chosen by a particular firm? All these issues should be addressed appropriately in order to formulate a complete assumption regarding the role of creative management in the development of entrepreneurial performance and its in teraction with innovation. Current study can face certain obstacles especially regarding the measurement of effectiveness of creative management in firms around the world. More specifically, because creative management belongs in the firm’s strategic decisions, it is rather difficult to retrieve accurate info for its effectiveness when applied in a particular organization – severe weaknesses of the above strategy are very likely not to be published trying to protect the firm’s position in its market. Towards this direction, all data and views presented regarding the particular issue have to be carefully chosen in order to represent the actual position of creative management and its effectiveness in the international market (at least as estimated by the majority of firms globally). The research method used in current paper will be a combination of qualitative and quantitative one.

Implementing Strategies Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2250 words

Implementing Strategies - Essay Example Strategy is the direction and scope of an organisation over the long term, which helps it to achieve one or more objectives through interrelated activities which are undertaken over a specific period of time. These activities form part of the strategy cycle which provides the plan of action for the organisation. This strategy cycle is illustrated in Figure 1.0 below.The first of the stage involves the strategy identification, which plays an important role as the resulting activities of the organisation will be based on decision made at this stage. In order to identify the best strategy to follow, the organisation has to have an understanding of their stakeholders' expectations Stakeholders can include customers, as they are ultimately the service users or consumers. By understanding their expectation, the process of identifying options becomes simplified. For example, if stakeholders expect superior quality or service, then the resulting strategic options could include a focus on cre ating a unique specialisation, novel approaches or even the introduction of equipment and/or technology to enhance this aspect. The second stage of formulating the strategy involves determining the appropriate courses of action to take to enable the organisation to achieve its objectives (Alan 2001, Doyle et al 2002). This can include increasing recruitment, job redundancies, relocation, expansion and other visible aspects of the plan. This is then appraised in Stage 3, a process which includes critical and feasibility assessments. The strategy is then implemented in Stage 4, and this stage is the practical part of the strategy where management actively put a strategy into place (Alan 2001, Doyle et al 2002). However, the implementation of a strategy is likely to be influenced by the dynamics of the organisation in terms of its culture and identity, as strategy implementation can sometimes be part of a change management process. Corporate culture can be defined as the set of beliefs, experiences and attitudes within an organisation (Alan 2001, Doyle et al 2002), and this is often entwined with corporate identity which tends to reflect and represent the culture. Corporate culture and identity have a significant influence on employees, as they dictate simple aspects such as the number of hours worked a day or a week, commuting options, interaction, dress code, benefits, training, office space and professional development (Morris 2005). For example, IBM will have a different corporate culture and identity to say a medical organisation. One can already make out the differences in work hours, as medical organisations tend to have variable working patterns, which in turn influence the amount of office space allocated to an individual, which can also influence the level of communication and interaction with other colleagues. This means that the strategy formulation and implementation processes cannot exclude corporate culture and identity, as these will ultimately determine the parameters of success for the organisation. THE INFLUENCE OF CORPORATE CULTURE AND IDENTITY ON STRATEGY FORMULATION Strategy formulation includes undertaking feasibility, techno-economic, strategy decision/network, input, financial, cost-benefit and pre-investment analyses (Toyohiro 1998, Matson 2001). Feasibility analysis This is where a proposed strategy is examined for its influences and effects on its consumers and/or other competitors (Toyohiro 1998, Alan 2001, Matson 2001, Doyle et al 2002). For instance, if a strategy is formulated that has the effect of increasing the level of competition in the industry, then there has to be some thought how this strategy will affect working hours and motivation of employees. It could be that the proposed strategy will result in a commission based system of work, which will conflict with employees especially if other aspects such as office space are not configured.

Budget prioritization issues, budget cuts, increases tuitions affect Essay - 1

Budget prioritization issues, budget cuts, increases tuitions affect higher education - Essay Example Students always have a strong back-up on their demands: they could possibly organize a strike to paralyze all the operations of an institution if not heard. There are pressing issues and injustices that college students face in the course of their studies that ought to be addressed (Munoz 70). Activism is the act of lobbying for social, economic or political transformation using laid down policies, peaceful negotiations or forceful campaigns by an individual or group of people. Other scholars have also defined activism as the practice that advocates for enthusiastic actions in pushing for or when against a debatable issue. Many times, activism has been associated with objection, opposition or some absurd behaviors against established authorities (Munoz 72). However, activism has been a tool for facilitating positive actions and behaviors in the society. People involved in activism mostly have an accepted thought and vision for their society. Organizations, trade unions and political parties have used activism to lobby for international, regional and national actions about different issues in the society. Students, for the sake of this research, have also actively used their unions to lobby for changes in different sectors in the colleges and universities in which they lea rn. Examples of such include the East LA student Walk Out of 19 68, the Gidra-Asian American UCLA student publication in the 1960s and the 3rd World liberation front strike interested in creation of ethnic studies. Other actions included the Students’ non-violent Coordinating Committee, the push for women’s centers and LGBT centers on campuses and the Free Speech Movement among others (Yamane 14). All these were combined efforts of students in colleges to ensure that the interest of the colleges’ leadership was on proper use of finances for equality in education. The interest of this paper would be to find out whether the issues raised by the students were acceptable, reasonable and

To What Extent Can HRM Be Described as Strategic Essay

To What Extent Can HRM Be Described as Strategic - Essay Example This paper will focus on the extent to which the human resource management can be considered as strategic. Strategic human resource management (SHRM) The purpose of the HR strategies is to guide the human resource management development and implementation programs. The programs dedicate towards the means of communicating to all concerned the intentions of the organization about the management of the human resources. The Human Resource strategies provide a dynamic vision but they also determine to which direction the actions are required to be executed and realized. The strategic human resource management develops a stream of dynamic decisions which help in the formation of a pattern developed by the organization for the management of the human resource and also identification of specific areas which needs to be developed. The strategies will basically focus on the do’s and dont’s of the organization to maintain the organizational health stability (Armstrong, 124). In st rategic human resource management, the functioning system appears in a systematic cycle following a sequenced chronological order. These can be classified into five different dimensions: a) mission and goals, b) environmental analysis ,c) strategic formulation , d) strategy implementation and lastly d) strategy evaluation (Bratton, 40). Validation of strategic human resource management There are limitations to the strategic human resource management. They do not always take into account the circumstances that are unique to a company's structure which may require alteration to regular procedures. The strategic human resource may not be always cost effective in nature since it focuses more towards a centralization-based approach and ignore the factors such as implementation and operating costs (Armstrong, 385). The strategic human resource management may not find its optimal feasibility in smaller companies that do not provide hardcore corporate environment. It can be also said that t he concept of strategic human resource management are based on beliefs about the rationality of the approaches used to develop strategy. The process also seems to underestimate the significance of politics, power, and culture. The implications of the power and politics perspective of the HRM are manifold. It is a fact that anyone who has worked with the organizations in the development of the HR practices such as selection and appraisal systems has inferred that it is political rather than technical or strategic consideration which determines the development of the final product (Armstrong, 278). Focus on organizational processes such as power and influence, institutionalization, conflict and contest for controls needs to be given special emphasis in order to under how the strategic decisions will be successful (Klimosk and Zaccaro). The prevalent conceptualizations of SHRM are depended on the conventional rational perspective to administrative decision-making, acts of linear planni ng and choice and action. Managerial fallacy Critical organizational theorists have criticized these assumptions stating that the strategic decisions are not necessarily based on the output of rational calculation. The theorists argue that the image of the manager as a reflective planner and strategist is based on a

Self Evaluation-Educational Objective Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Self Evaluation-Educational Objective - Essay Example I personally believe that time management will be the biggest challenge during this course. The balance between family life, work and academic area will be a difficult thing to do. Proper planning and following those plans are helpful in maintaining good balance between these 3 crucial areas of a person's life. I intend to properly distribute time and following my plans to achieve my goal of attaining this degree. The concept of diversity and globalization are not new for anyone today. I have faced diversity in the workplaces and I am familiar with the barriers that people face. I have always been a rational person and avoid discrimination at all instances. I will contribute to the diversified learning environment by keeping my decisions, work and relationships balanced with everyone and by encouraging teamwork. I work as a leader to a group of 8 employees. I personally believe that I lack management skills and leadership traits which are important for my job. Education undoubtedly h elps us in gaining better designation. This MBA program will be helpful in gaining reputation in the work field, promotion by application of modern concepts and better job performance. I have a goal to become the head of the department in my workplace. I lacked the master's degree which is the requirement of that position.

Murphy Brewery Ireland, Limited (case study) Case Study

Murphy Brewery Ireland, Limited ( ) - Case Study Example As discussed in the case, Alcohol consumption was falling coz of increased health concerns. Murphy share was already less in the market as compared to that of its competitor so the company should come up with a focused strategy rather than a general one. For e.g. is Ireland Murphy developed growth thorough exporting and making such packaging design that targeted the take-home market. Another cause of the problem is that when we analyse Murphy’s competitor, it can be noted that they invest a lot on advertising. Guinness 12 million pounds investment in advertising called the Big Pint and extensive billboard advertising that represented the strength of the brand was a big success for it. Similarly Murphy’s sales could improve if they spend more budget on advertising. They need to come up as a big brand in order to establish a strong market share and to compete with Guinness and other leading brands. Murphy should work on the promotion of their brand. In order to sustain in the market they need to get big. They need to invest more in their advertising budget so that they can achieve a larger market share. The problem with this is that as they increase their market share they will also have to increase their capacity and will have to invest in that too. Another alternative to this is to remain a niche brand but that has its own pros and cons. Murphy has to see that if it is a premium brand then it should design its marketing mix according to that too. It is a good option as US consumers have high living standard and they represent a major market worldwide. At the same time they should consider that high end consumers have their own choices. So before becoming a premium brand a through market analysis should be carried out that identifies customer preferences and then a strategy shall be designed accordingly. The best thing that Murphy to do will be to work on increasing its market share. If they will not do it

Network and Internet Security Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Network and Internet Security - Essay Example A Shared Secret is a provisional access code that a company needs to generate a Portal trade Account in the eManifest Portal. The CBSA offers it to businesses that demand contact to the Portal and must be applied within 90 days of the issue time. The Shared Secret comes in handy to substantiate and validate a customer when generating an eManifest Portal company Account. Only the CBSA and the certified representative of the business have contact to this information. The Kerberos protocol is planned to present steadfast verification over open and unprotected networks where communications linking the hosts belonging to it may tempered. Nevertheless, one should be aware that Kerberos does not grant any guarantees if the machines in use are susceptible: the validation servers, submission servers and customers must be kept continuously updated so that the legitimacy of the requesting users and suppliers can be guaranteed. Kerberos protocol endeavors to avert the client's password from bein g maintained in its unencrypted mode, even in the verification server database. Bearing in mind that every encryption algorithm applies its individual key length, it is apparent that, if the consumer is not to be required to use a diverse password of a preset size for each encryption technique supported, the encryption keys cannot be the passwords. For these bases the string2key application has been introduced. It transforms an unencrypted code word into an encryption key appropriate for the sort of encryption to be utilized. This function is referred every time a user alters code word or enters it for verification. The string2key is coined as a hash function, implying that it is permanent: given that an encryption key cannot establish the secret word which created it. One-time password verification scheme (OTP). The system offers authentication for system access and further applications entail authentication, which is sheltered against flaccid attacks based on rerunning held reusab le passwords. OTP developed from the S/KEY: a brand name of Bellcore. The utilization of the OTP method only present buffers against replay aggression. It does not grant the seclusion of transmitted information, and neither does it guard against active attacks. Active aggression against TCP connections are identified to be there in the contemporary Internet (Kling, 1996). The triumph of the OTP system to guard host systems is reliant on the non-invertability of the protected hash functions applied (Carver, 2007). None of the hash algorithms have ever since been wrecked, but it is usually assumed that MD4 is less strong compared to MD5. If a server supports several hash algorithms, it is merely as protected as the weakest algorithm. There are two methods of productively and safely implementation of OTP tokens: structural design of the token execution and physical safety of the tokens. Regarding architecture, the first reflection is placement of the token in the system. The most secur e application of OTP tokens is for logging in at workplaces locally or for reaching an internal network after a firewall. In an in-house network, whereby all servers are under watch (distinct from the open Internet) an MITM (Man in the Middle) assault is not as probable (Neuman, 2008). However SSL alone can't prevent a man-in-the-middle assault. SSL with joint authentication in place can offer some defense since both

Applied Linguistics Essay Example for Free

Applied Linguistics Essay Stylistics is the study and interpretation of texts from a linguistic perspective. As a discipline it links literary criticism and linguistics, but has no autonomous domain of its own. [1][2] The preferred object of stylistic studies is literature, but not exclusively high literature but also other forms of written texts such as text from the domains of advertising, pop culture, politics or religion. [3] Stylistics also attempts to establish principles capable of explaining the particular choices made by individuals and social groups in their use of language, such as socialisation, the production and reception of meaning, critical discourse analysis and literary criticism. Other features of stylistics include the use of dialogue, including regional accents and people’s dialects, descriptive language, the use of grammar, such as the active voice or passive voice, the distribution of sentence lengths, the use of particular language registers, etc. In addition, stylistics is a distinctive term that may be used to determine the connections between the form and effects within a particular variety of language. Therefore, stylistics looks at what is ‘going on’ within the language; what the linguistic associations are that the style of language reveals. Contents * 1 Early twentieth century * 2 Late twentieth century * 3 Literary Stylistics * 3. 1 Poetry * 3. 2 Implicature * 3. 3 Tense * 3. 4 The point of poetry * 4 See also * 5 Notes * 6 References and related reading * 7 External links| [edit] Early twentieth century. The analysis of literary style goes back to Classical rhetoric, but modern stylistics has its roots in Russian Formalism,[4] and the interrelated Prague School, in the early twentieth century. In 1909 Charles Ballys Traite de stylistique francaise had proposed stylistics as a distinct academic discipline to complement Saussurean linguistics. For Bally, Saussures linguistics by itself couldnt fully describe the language of personal expression. [5] Ballys programme fitted well with the aims of the Prague School. [6] Building on the ideas of the Russian Formalists, the Prague School developed the concept of foregrounding, whereby poetic language stands out from the background of non-literary language by means of deviation (from the norms of everyday language) or parallelism. [7] According to the Prague School, the background language isnt fixed, and the relationship between poetic and everyday language is always shifting. [8] [edit] Late twentieth century Roman Jakobson had been an active member of the Russian Formalists and the Prague School, before emigrating to America in the 1940s. He brought together Russian Formalism and American New Criticism in his Closing Statement at a conference on stylistics at Indiana University in 1958. [9] Published as Linguistics and Poetics in 1960, Jakobsons lecture is often credited with being the first coherent formulation of stylistics, and his argument was that the study of poetic language should be a sub-branch of linguistics. [10] The poetic function was one of six general functions of language he described in the lecture. Michael Halliday is an important figure in the development of British stylistics. [11] His 1971 study Linguistic Function and Literary Style: An Inquiry into the Language of William Goldings The Inheritors is a key essay. [12] One of Hallidays contributions has been the use of the term register to explain the connections between language and its context. [13] For Halliday register is distinct from dialect. Dialect refers to the habitual language of a particular user in a specific geographical or social context. Register describes the choices made by the user,[14] choices which depend on three variables: field (what the participants are actually engaged in doing, for instance, discussing a specific subject or topic),[15] tenor (who is taking part in the exchange) and mode (the use to which the language is being put). Fowler comments that different fields produce different language, most obviously at the level of vocabulary (Fowler. 1996, 192) The linguist David Crystal points out that Halliday’s ‘tenor’ stands as a roughly equivalent term for ‘style’, which is a more specific alternative used by linguists to avoid ambiguity. (Crystal. 1985, 292) Halliday’s third category, mode, is what he refers to as the symbolic organisation of the situation. Downes recognises two distinct aspects within the category of mode and suggests that not only does it describe the relation to the medium: written, spoken, and so on, but also describes the genre of the text. (Downes. 1998, 316) Halliday refers to genre as pre-coded language, language that has not simply been used before, but that predetermines the selection of textual meanings. The linguist William Downes makes the point that the principal characteristic of register, no matter how peculiar or diverse, is that it is obvious and immediately recognisable. (Downes. 1998, 309) [edit] Literary Stylistics In The Cambridge Encyclopedia of Language, Crystal observes that, in practice, most stylistic analysis has attempted to deal with the complex and ‘valued’ language within literature, i. e. ‘literary stylistics’. He goes on to say that in such examination the scope is sometimes narrowed to concentrate on the more striking features of literary language, for instance, its ‘deviant’ and abnormal features, rather than the broader structures that are found in whole texts or discourses. For example, the compact language of poetry is more likely to reveal the secrets of its construction to the stylistician than is the language of plays and novels. (Crystal. 1987, 71). [edit] Poetry As well as conventional styles of language there are the unconventional – the most obvious of which is poetry. In Practical Stylistics, HG Widdowson examines the traditional form of the epitaph, as found on headstones in a cemetery. For example: His memory is dear today As in the hour he passed away. (Ernest C. Draper ‘Ern’. Died 4. 1. 38) (Widdowson. 1992, 6) Widdowson makes the point that such sentiments are usually not very interesting and suggests that they may even be dismissed as ‘crude verbal carvings’and crude verbal disturbance (Widdowson, 3). Nevertheless, Widdowson recognises that they are a very real attempt to convey feelings of human loss and preserve affectionate recollections of a beloved friend or family member. However, what may be seen as poetic in this language is not so much in the formulaic phraseology but in where it appears. The verse may be given undue reverence precisely because of the sombre situation in which it is placed. Widdowson suggests that, unlike words set in stone in a graveyard, poetry is unorthodox language that vibrates with inter-textual implications. (Widdowson. 1992, 4) Two problems with a stylistic analysis of poetry are noted by PM Wetherill in Literary Text: An Examination of Critical Methods. The first is that there may be an over-preoccupation with one particular feature that may well minimise the significance of others that are equally important. (Wetherill. 1974, 133) The second is that any attempt to see a text as simply a collection of stylistic elements will tend to ignore other ways whereby meaning is produced. (Wetherill. 1974, 133) [edit] Implicature In ‘Poetic Effects’ from Literary Pragmatics, the linguist Adrian Pilkington analyses the idea of ‘implicature’, as instigated in the previous work of Dan Sperber and Deirdre Wilson. Implicature may be divided into two categories: ‘strong’ and ‘weak’ implicature, yet between the two extremes there are a variety of other alternatives. The strongest implicature is what is emphatically implied by the speaker or writer, while weaker implicatures are the wider possibilities of meaning that the hearer or reader may conclude. Pilkington’s ‘poetic effects’, as he terms the concept, are those that achieve most relevance through a wide array of weak implicatures and not those meanings that are simply ‘read in’ by the hearer or reader. Yet the distinguishing instant at which weak implicatures and the hearer or reader’s conjecture of meaning diverge remains highly subjective. As Pilkington says: ‘there is no clear cut-off point between assumptions which the speaker certainly endorses and assumptions derived purely on the hearer’s responsibility. ’ (Pilkington.1991, 53) In addition, the stylistic qualities of poetry can be seen as an accompaniment to Pilkington’s poetic effects in understanding a poems meaning. [edit] Tense Widdowson points out that in Samuel Taylor Coleridge’s poem ‘The Rime of the Ancient Mariner’ (1798), the mystery of the Mariner’s abrupt appearance is sustained by an idiosyncratic use of tense. (Widdowson. 1992, 40) For instance, the Mariner ‘holds’ the wedding-guest with his ‘skinny hand’ in the present tense, but releases it in the past tense ( his hands dropt he. ); only to hold him again, this time with his ‘glittering eye’, in the present. (Widdowson. 1992, 41) [edit] The point of poetry Widdowson notices that when the content of poetry is summarised it often refers to very general and unimpressive observations, such as ‘nature is beautiful; love is great; life is lonely; time passes’, and so on. (Widdowson. 1992, 9) But to say: Like as the waves make towards the pebbled shore, So do our minutes hasten to their end William Shakespeare, ‘60’. Or, indeed: Love, all alike, no season knows nor clime, Nor hours, days months, which are the rags of time John Donne, ‘The Sun Rising’, Poems (1633). This language gives us a new perspective on familiar themes and allows us to look at them without the personal or social conditioning that we unconsciously associate with them. (Widdowson. 1992, 9) So, although we may still use the same exhausted words and vague terms like ‘love’, ‘heart’ and ‘soul’ to refer to human experience, to place these words in a new and refreshing context allows the poet the ability to represent humanity and communicate honestly. This, in part, is stylistics, and this, according to Widdowson, is the point of poetry (Widdowson. 1992, 76). [edit] See also * Discourse analysis * Acrolect * Aureation * Basilect * Stylometry * Literary language * Standard language * Official language * Classical language * Liturgical language * Gender role in language * Poetics and Linguistics Association * Internet linguistics [edit] Notes 1. ^ Widdowson, H. G. 1975. Stylistics and the teaching of literature. Longman: London. ISBN 0582550769 2. ^ Simpson, Paul. 2004. Stylistics : A resource book for students. Routledge p. 2: Stylistics is a method of textual interpretation in which primacy of place is assigned to language. 3. ^ Simpson, Paul. 2004. Stylistics : A resource book for students. Routledge p.  3: The preferred object of study in stylistics is literature, whether that be institutionally sanctioned ‘Literature’ as high art or more popular ‘noncanonical’ forms of writing. . 4. ^ Lesley Jeffries, Daniel McIntyre, Stylistics, Cambridge University Press, 2010, p1. ISBN 052172869X 5. ^ Talbot J. Taylor, Mutual Misunderstanding: Scepticism and the Theorizing of Language and Interpretation, Duke University Press, 1992, p91. ISBN 0822312492 6. ^ Ulrich Ammon, Status and Function of Languages and Language Varieties, Walter de Gruyter, 1989, p518. ISBN 0899253563 7. ^ Katie Wales, A Dictionary of Stylistics, Pearson Education, 2001, p315. ISBN 0582317371 8. ^ Rob Pope, The English Studies Book: an Introduction to Language, Literature and Culture, Routledge, 2002, p88. ISBN 0415257107 9. ^ Richard Bradford, A Linguistic History of English Poetry, Routledge, 1993, p8. ISBN 0415070570 10. ^ Nikolas Coupland, Style: Language Variation and Identity, Cambridge University Press, 2007, p10. ISBN 0521853036 11. ^ Raman Selden, The Cambridge History of Literary Criticism: From Formalism to Poststructuralism, Cambridge University Press, 1989, p83. ISBN 0521300134 12. ^ Paul Simpson, Stylistics: a Resource Book for Students, Routledge, 2004, p75. ISBN 0415281040 13. ^ Helen Leckie-Tarry, Language and Context: a Functional Linguistic Theory of Register, Continuum International Publishing Group, 1995, p6. ISBN 1855672723 14. ^ Nikolas Coupland, Style: Language Variation and Identity, Cambridge University Press, 2007, p12. ISBN 0521853036 15. ^ Christopher S. Butler, Structure and Function: a Guide to Three Major Structural-Functional Theories, John Benjamins Publishing Company, 2003, p373. ISBN 1588113612 [edit] References and related reading * ed. David Birch. 1995. Context and Language: A Functional Linguistic Theory of Register (London, New York: Pinter) * Richard Bradford. 1997. Stylistics (London and New York: Routledge) * Michael Burke. 2010. Literary Reading, Cognition and Emotion: An Exploration of the Oceanic Mind (London and New York: Routledge) * David Crystal. 1998. Language Play (London: Penguin) 1985. A Dictionary of Linguistics and Phonetics, 2nd edition (Oxford: Basil Blackwell) 1997. The Cambridge Encyclopedia of Language, 2nd edition (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press) * William Downes. 1998. Language and Society, 2nd edition (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press) * Roger Fowler. 1996. Linguistic Criticism, 2nd edition (Oxford: Oxford University Press) 1995. The Language of George Orwell (London: Macmillan Press) * MAK Halliday. 1978. Language as Social Semiotic: The Social Interpretation of Language and Meaning (London: Edward Arnold) * Brian Lamont. 2005. First Impressions (Edinburgh: Penbury Press) * Geoffrey Leech and Michael H. Short. 1981. Style in Fiction: A Linguistic Introduction to English Fictional Prose (London: Longman) * A McIntosh and P Simpson. 1964. The Linguistic Science and Language Teaching (London: Longman) * George Orwell. 1949. Nineteen Eighty-Four (London: Heinemann) 1964. Inside the Whale and Other Essays (London: Penguin Books) * Adrian Pilkington. 1991. ‘Poetic Effects’, Literary Pragmatics, ed. Roger Sell (London: Routledge) * ed. Thomas A. Sebeok. 1960. Style in Language (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press) * Michael Toolan. 1998. Language in Literature: An Introduction to Stylistics (London: Hodder Arnold) * Jonathan Swift. 1994. Gulliver’s Travels (London: Penguin Popular Classics) * Katie Wales. 2001. A Dictionary of Stylistics, 2nd edition, (Harlow: Longman) * ed. Jean Jacques Weber. 1996. The Stylistics Reader: From Roman Jakobson to the Present (London: Arnold Hodder) * PM Wetherill. 1974. Literary Text: An Examination of Critical Methods (Oxford: Basil Blackwell) * HG Widdowson. 1992. Practical Stylistics (Oxford: Oxford University Press) * Joseph Williams. 2007. Style: Lessons in Clarity and Grace, 9th edition (New York: Pearson Longman) [edit] External links * Checklist of American and British programs in stylistics and literary linguistics * The British Poetics and Linguistics Association * http://www. brianlamont. com/ Retrieved from http://en. wikipedia. org/wiki/Stylistics_(literature) Categories: Applied linguistics | Language varieties and styles | Linguistics Hidden categories: Wikipedia articles needing style editing from October 2010 | All articles needing style editing Personal tools. * Log in / create account Namespaces * Article * Discussion Variants Views * Read * Edit * View history Actions Search - Top of Form Bottom of Form Navigation * Main page * Contents * Featured content * Current events * Random article * Donate to Wikipedia Interaction * Help * About Wikipedia * Community portal * Recent changes * Contact Wikipedia Toolbox * What links here * Related changes * Upload file * Special pages * Permanent link * Cite this page Print/export * Create a book * Download as PDF * Printable version Languages * * БÐ µÃ »Ã °Ã'€Ã'Æ'Ã' Ã ºÃ °Ã'  * БÃ'ŠÐ »Ã ³Ã °Ã'€Ã' Ã ºÃ ¸ * Catala * Cesky * Dansk. * Deutsch * Eesti * Espanol * Esperanto * Francais * Galego * * Ido * Bahasa Indonesia * Italiano * * Kiswahili * Magyar * ÐÅ"Ð ¾Ã ½Ã ³Ã ¾Ã » * Nederlands * * Polski * Portugues * Romana * Ð  Ã'Æ'Ã' Ã' Ã ºÃ ¸Ã ¹ * Slovencina * Srpskohrvatski / Ð ¡Ã'€Ð ¿Ã' Ã ºÃ ¾Ã'…Ã'€Ð ²Ã °Ã'‚Ã' Ã ºÃ ¸ * Suomi * Svenska * Ð £Ã ºÃ'€Ð °Ã'â€"Ð ½Ã' Ã'Å'Ð ºÃ ° * This page was last modified on 4 March 2011 at 05:48. * Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. 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Processes Involved In The Production Of Precipitation Biology Essay

Processes Involved In The Production Of Precipitation Biology Essay Precipitation is one of the most important factors in the water cycle, which all life forms on Earth revolve around. However without the essential conditions and processes occurring, precipitation would not be possible. Introduction Precipitation results when cloud particles become too heavy therefore they fall to the Earths surface as water that comes either in solid (Hail, ice-pellets, snow, diamond dust, sleet and snow grains) or liquid form (Rain, freezing rain and drizzle), falling from the atmosphere towards the Earths surface. In order for precipitation to occur, cloud formation is an essential process. Discussion Cloud formation Figure 1 Cloud formation Sourced from: http://apollo.lsc.vsc.edu/ Clouds form from the process of condensation due to adiabatic processes. Unstable conditions result in an air parcel rising until it cools at dew-point temperature, therefore becoming saturated. A decrease in atmospheric pressure results in the expansion of air molecules in the parcel, therefore this causes a decrease in temperature. This process is known as adiabatic cooling and has a constant lapse rate of 10Co per 1000 metres. However air sinking down the atmosphere increases in temperature due to being compressed by the constant increase in air pressure, which is known as adiabatic heating. Further cooling results from the air parcel being lifted, thus condensation of water vapour occurs. The presence of cloud condensation nuclei is mandatory for water to condense amongst molecules of air. To summarise, cloud formation occurs based on the conditions of saturated air, cooling mechanisms and lastly the presence of cloud condensation nuclei. http://apollo.lsc.vsc.edu/~wintelsw/MET1010LOL/chapter06/adiabatic01.jpg Precipitation processes The form undertaken by precipitation depends mainly on the formation method and the present temperature during the formation. Two of the main theories accepted as being principally responsible for the formation of the precipitation particles are the Collision-coalescence process and the Bergeron/ ice crystal process. Collision coalescence process: A theory for warmer clouds in low latitudes, it states that as water droplets are cohesive, upon colliding with one another, they merge. Evidence for this theory has been seen in warmer sections of clouds where moisture exist solely in liquid state, with larger droplets overtaking smaller droplets whilst falling due to their less buoyant state, and merging with them to form a larger droplet. (See Figure 1) The increased mass of the droplets defy the updrafts of clouds and begin their descent to Earths surface. http://san.hufs.ac.kr/~gwlee/session8/images/collision.gif Bergeron/Ice crystal process: Figure 2: Collision-coalescence process Sourced from: http:/ san.hufs.ac.krProposed in the 1920s by Swedish meteorologist Tor Bergeron, the theory states that due to the lowered saturated pressure of the ice-crystal, as compared to the water vapour, this results in the ice-crystal growing larger in size as surrounding water vapour evaporates. Once the ice crystals are large enough to fall, they pass through the warm, lower portion of clouds where they absorb more moisture therefore increasing yet again in size. (Figure 2) The ice-crystals will then either melt and precipitate as rain or precipitate from the clouds as snowflakes. Figure 3: The Bergeron Process- Sourced from: http://geography.hunter.cuny.eduhttp://www.geography.hunter.cuny.edu/~tbw/wc.notes/5.cond.precip/precipitation/bergeron.process.jpg The forms of precipitation depend mainly on the air temperature and turbulences. The major forms of precipitation include Rain, Snow, Sleet (Also known as freezing rain) and hail. Rain The most common form of precipitate, it consists of droplets of liquid water. Though their sizes vary, droplets are usually between 2-5mm in diameter. Rain droplets may reduce in size and distance between each other as a result of the temperature of the air mass being slightly less than the dew point. This then is known as Drizzle. Snow The second most common form of precipitate, snow occurs when water vapour freezes directly prior to passing through sublimation, thereby forming tiny crystals around the freezing nuclei as seen in the Bergeron process. http://www.nssl.noaa.gov/primer/winter/images/snow.jpg Figure 4- Snow formation Sourced from: http://nssl.noaa.gov(Figure 4) Sleet Rain falling down to Earth gets passed through a reasonably thick layer of cold air near Earths surface therefore freezing. (Figure 5) Glaze Figure 5- Temperature differences with precipitation forms Sourced from: http://uiuc.edu/ forestry/publications/pdf/ urban_community_forestry/ trees_and_ice_storms_2006.pdfWhile Sleet is formed by raindrops freezing during descent, Glaze is formed the instant raindrops collide with a solid object. Hail A lesser-common precipitate, the formation of hail begins with the lifting of ice-crystals caused by strong updrafts in a cumulonimbus cloud. (Figure 6) Cooled by circulating inside the cloud, the water droplets attach together, forming layers. http://www.jamesspann.com/wordpress/wp-content/uploads/2011/05/SevereWx6.jpg Figure 6-Hail formation Sourced from: NC State University (http://hatteras.meas.ncsu.edu/secc_edu/SevereWeather/body) A less common form of precipitate is: Diamond dust/ ice crystal A meteorological phenomenon, diamond dust is also known as a form of clear-sky precipitation as it forms under relatively clear skies. Atmospheric Lifting Atmospheric lifting plays a major role the formation of precipitation as mentioned above. http://geospatial.gsu.edu/geog1112/files/Lab5/Convection.jpg Convective Lifting Figure 7- Convective lifting Sourced from: Pearson prentice hall Inc. 2007/As different surface areas have various temperatures due to unequal heating, conduction causes the air parcel to be warmer than surrounding air (Figure 7). Heated air expands as its density decreases; therefore the air parcel rises towards the lower-density layer. As the air continues to rise, this results in the pressure of the unstable air decreasing. Thus the air cools adiabatically until the dew point temperature has been reached. Precipitation that forms from convective lifting, convective precipitation, is common in warmer regions of the globe and is observed to be light showers with large raindrops. However convective precipitation usually last for short durations at a time. http://media-1.web.britannica.com/eb-media/51/135451-004-A6B6636B.jpg Orographic Lifting Figure 8 Orographic lifting Sourced from: http://britannica.comAscending air is forced upwards a land mass, usually due to a topographic barrier, where it cools adiabatically to dew point temperature and then condenses. When air stars to descend downhill, condensation and precipitation come to a halt as the air starts to warms adiabatically. Windward slope of the barrier is termed the wet side whereas the leeward slope is the dry side. The rain shadow area is considered to be from the dry side to the extent of the drying influence. Orographic precipitation is common in New Zealand due to the presence of many hills and mountain ranges in the landscape. Frontal lifting This type of lifting occurs due to a front, which is defined by Whittow (2000) as being the boundary plane between two air masses with different meteorological characteristics. The warmer air mass is forced to rise over the cold air mass, thereby cooling to dew point temperature. This then allows for the formation of clouds and the resulting frontal precipitation. http://ocw.usu.edu/forest__range__and_wildlife_sciences/wildland_fire_management_and_planning/lifting3.jpg Figure 9- Frontal Lifting Sourced from: Idaho University http://www.sci.uidaho.edu Convergent Lifting Figure 10- Convergent lifting Sourced from: Idaho University http://www.sci.uidaho.eduThe least common type of atmospheric lifting, it occurs with air converging thus, uplift is formed due to crowding. Instability is then increased therefore producing showery-type precipitation. Convergent lifting is linked to cyclonic storms and is far more common in lower latitudes, as well as the intertropical convergence zone, where tropical disturbances such as hurricanes are caused by it. http://www.sci.uidaho.edu/scripter/geog100/lect/05-atmos-water-wx/05-part-7-atmos-lifting-fronts/05-25a-lifting-convergent.jpg Global distribution The amount of precipitation received in any region on Earths surface depends on the characteristics of the air mass involved, such as humidity, temperature and stability which are also dependent on the originating latitudes and the trajectory of the air mass. Figure 11- Total annual rainfall sourced from: climate-charts  © www.climate-charts.comWorldwide annual precipitation http://www.climate-charts.com/images/world-rainfall-map.png Tropical latitudes are considered to contain most of the wettest regions in the globe. This may be due to the large moisture carrying capacity of the warm easterly trade winds, hence why very heavy rainfall is often produced in those areas. Regions near the equator exhibit these circumstances, as warm and unstable air gets lifted by within the intertropical convergence zone, as the warmer ocean waters easily vaporizes. Large amounts of precipitations also form due to topographic obstacles forcing trade winds to rise. The orographic effect is exhibited in the eastern regions of tropical landmasses, such as Madagascar and N.E South America, due to the trade winds coming from the easterly direction. Drier areas are more common on the western side of continents in subtropical latitudes (20o and 30o centred ) High pressure areas, where air sinks which does not promote condensation or precipitation, are common at the latitudes mentioned above which are closer to subtropical high-pressure cells. The contrast between the precipitation received in coastal regions and interior regions of continents are also quite visible. (Figure 8) Coastal regions are able to receive a higher amount of precipitation due to being geographically closer to sources of moisture, such as oceans. Conclusion In order for precipitation to be formed, numerous conditions and processes have to be met. Adiabatic processes are key in cloud formation, which is essential for precipitation. The two main theories currently accepted as principally responsible for producing precipitation particles are the Bergeron/Ice-crystal process and the Collision-coalescence process. Forms of precipitation that arise from the processes above include, Rain, which is the most common form; Snow, Sleet, Glaze and Hail. A lesser common form is Diamond dust/Ice crystals which are known as a meteorological phenomenon. Only through the processes of atmospheric lifting can precipitation occur. The four main principle types of atmospheric lifting include Convective lifting, which is due to unequal heating on the surface; Orographic lifting, which is caused by a topographic barrier; Frontal lifting, due to fronts; and lastly convergent lifting, the least common, occurring when air converges. The distribution of precipitation varies greatly around the globe, depending however, on the characteristics of the air mass involved, such as humidity, temperature and stability which are also dependent on the originating latitudes and the trajectory of the air mass. Tropical latitudes receive the most amounts due to the moisture carrying capacity of the trade winds which also cause an orographic effect observed near the eastern regions of tropical landmasses, due to their easterly direction.

Toomer Challenges Racial Identity English Literature Essay

Toomer Challenges Racial Identity English Literature Essay Karintha, reapers and November cotton flowers, all have similar settings in rural Georgia which is located in the south where we see a lot of racism going on. The south for black Americans functioned as a site for trauma as well as a symbolic reference for their homeland. It is also a symbolic connection between slavery and sexualized black women. Its is all embedded in Toomers quest for racial identity as a mulatto. Toomer tries to represent the black womans sexuality as an act of sexual union scarred by traumatic history by depicting Karintha as an innocent prostitute. The book cane is regarded as a passing era associated with the trauma of slavery. Toomer was trying to create a connection between racial and cultural continuity generated by modernity to the regulation of black female desire. The major theme in this story which is death and sex relate to the Black American historical content of slavery and lynching. We see that in Cane, Toomer uses nature to describe the bodies of t he black females but nearly all the females are either tortured or violated in the rural settings which projects displacement of nature. The haunting rhythm of folk songs in the rural landscape draws attention to the women who are objects of male desire and transforms this women into lost objects. Toomer portrays the gender issues and social barriers that hindered black women. Her skin is like dust on the eastern horizonwhen the sun goes down (page 5). This description Toomer gives of karintha as dusk shows that what she represents is fading away. Karintha introduces the themes of movement in life and death that reoccur in the book Cane. The interest of men, who wishes to ripen a growing thing too soonà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ (page5) shows that men hastened her sexual development. Karintha represents the folks spirit that is fading away due to modernity in the south, she is over sexualized and that means that black men still have urges to be reconnected with the past. In Reapers, we see major racial themes here; the idea of slavery takes major precedence in ones mind when we start reading the poem. Toomer lays emphasis on the word black (Page 7) used to describe the black Americans that were slaves at that time in the south. The reapers were tied to a life of monotonous work. The introduction of the mower disrupts the peace in the cultivation of the weeds and brings war; this brings out the theme of racism, where there is constant social war between the colored and the white. The poem Reapers is suggestive of Black field laborers in the early 20th Century. Toomer also tries to depict the problem of racial economic inequalities that were also present in the south at that time. The word continue (page7) connotes the constant labor the black male did in the fields. We also have a view on how in the early 20th century, black males who had their lands would have to work and pay a certain amount back to the whites thereby leaving them with little profit . All their turmoil and hard work was always in vain. We also see an introduction to violence that emerges with the blood-stained scythe that has cut a rat in the poem, an issue that Toomer readdresses later in cane. November cotton flower is another poem that ensues after Reapers, the poem talks about environment in the south were we all know was difficult for the colored skin at that point in time. The poem describes how the cotton flowers survived the harsh south weather and still strived through the hard times it went through. We see Toomer use the idea of racial identity, he uses the images of scarcity, drought and death to express the black race during the time the poem was written. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Brown eyes that loved without a trace of fear, Beauty so sudden for that time of year. (Page 8) Toomer depicts the sudden urge that the African American race have to fight against racism. The description of a hope for the cotton flower shows that Toomer believes there is hope for the African American; he tries to create a link between the oppression of race to the growing of a cotton flower. In Cane, Toomer tries to create a hybrid structure, where we see a combination of short stories and poems. Karintha, Reapers, and November cotton flowers portray death, labor, racial identity and racism which portray major themes in the book cane as a whole. The book cane is designed in a circle, Toomer starts from the south up into the north and back into the southern regions again. Since, Karintha, Reapers, and November cotton flowers are the first three consecutive pieces in the book Cane, Toomer gives us a shadow or a hint of what is to proceed in other poems and stories in the book. The three pieces are set in the rural south where a lot of racial identity is taking place, the description of Karintha as a November cotton flower, also gives us an imagery of how the south and its environment looked at that point in time. In karintha, Toomer describes her as an innocent prostitute who men constantly came to for gratification of their sexual desires just to fend a living for herself. Toomer reechoes the themes labor and economic inequalities also found in the poem Reapers and November cotton flower. Blood-stained, continue cutting weeds and shade (page 7) shows how the African Americans in the south had to continually labor to fend for themselves and family. In the south, the blacks grew cotton for a living but in November cotton flower, they had turmoil but seen no rewards of their labor, the natural resources were depleted thereby leaving the fields empty. And cotton scarce as any southern snow (page 8) Toomers cane is compiled of encounters with both blacks and white and black. In Karintha, we see encounters between blacks and white. Karintha was a black woman who was sexually appealing to both the white and black men in her community. However, in Reapers and November cotton flower we see the opposite of such encounters. Even though white men are attracted to karintha, in Reapers, and November cotton flowers, we see that they belittle the dusk skin color and subject them to a life of constant labor. Toomer also paints the theme death in these three consecutive pieces that start the book cane, as it would also be discussed in the other poems and stories that followed. In karintha, we see towards the ending that she mysteriously has a child who dies, Toomer likens the death to smokes that curl up in the community. Furthermore, Toomer uses animals in Reapers and November cotton flowers to signify death. In reapers, And there a field rat, startled squealing bleeds, (page7) Shows the black reaper slays the rat and leaves it bleeding without offering any sympathy to it. Toomer also describes the features of a dead land in November cotton flowers. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦dead birds were found (page 8). Toomers description of Karintha as a November Cotton flower shows the idea of double consciousness because karintha was depicted by Toomer as a violent child who was mischievous and always stoning the cow, yet the preacher convinced himself that there was nothing wrong in her acts and regarded her as a November cotton flower. Toomer tries to portray how the whites thought their maltreatment of the blacks were justified and lawful. Which, is also the same thing seen in Reapers when the reaper refuses to acknowledge the fact that he had hurt the rat. The introduction of the mowers by Toomer in the reapers also signifies the birth of modernism and the new Negro movements, which, is also repeated in November cotton flowers when the cotton flowers begins to unexpectedly grow and the blacks see a hopeful future after the death of karinthas child which signifies the death of the old negro and old cultural style because as soon as Toomer transitions to the rural setting, the folk song setting seems to vanish. Jean Toomers cane is a book that takes into cognizance, the lives lived by Negros at that particular era and his work was considered as the New Negro art that led other black poets or writers to write other books in that light.

Negative Impacts of Capitalism on Marginalised Social Groups Essay

Capitalism is the predominant political economic system in the developed world where citizens and companies are able to elect which goods and services to engender and how they will procure and disburse their earnings. It is highly based on private property and private profit however; the government controls some portions of the economy within nations. Although capitalism is beneficial for citizens in various ways, it also creates negative impacts on marginalised social groups due to uneven distribution of wealth. These communities have critiqued on capitalism as they debate that the economy system limits democracy, disobeys democratic principles of social justice and enables forms of human suffering and shortage in individual emancipation. These issues are further discussed in Greene’s (2003) studies as he examines how mega-events, slum clearance and global capital negatively impacts the lives of socially marginalised populations. Capitalism is an economic system driven by the endless pursuit of profits. In Seoul and Santo Domingo, however, capitalists believe that these benefits ...

The American Bald Eagle Essay -- essays research papers

I chose the American bald eagle because it is one of the fastest and strongest species of eagles. It is the national symbol. The Congress adopted it as the national symbol in 1782. I think it was adopted as the national bird of the United States because the Roman soldiers used the eagle as a symbol of courage and power. In the early 1800's, Americans called the Bald Eagle, the American eagle. Here is some of the biology of the Bald Eagle. Bald Eagles do a very good job at their part in the food web. Bald eagles also have an interesting name. The scientific name for bald eagles is Haliaeetus leucocephalus. The family order is accipitridae and falconiformes. The young of bald eagles are called eaglets or eyasses. Bald eagles are warm-blooded and breathe oxygen from the air. A female will lay 1 to 3 eggs every five years, with at least 1hatching. Although all Bald Eagles are consumers, none of them eat plants to get their chemical energy. Some birds in the eagle community are African fish eagle, Stellerà ­s sea eagle, white-bellied sea eagle and the palm-nut vulture. Bald eagles, out of all eagles are carnivores; they eat fish, there is no such thing as a herbivore or even an omnivore Eagle. The young of a bald eagle are fully fledged (just like their parents and ready to live in the world) at about the age of 4 months. After hatching, newborn eagles are all white and blind. Male bald eagles generally measure 3 feet from the end of the beak to the tip of...

Imprisonment and Persecution of Quakers :: British History Essays

Imprisonment and Persecution of Quakers In An Account of the Travels Sufferings and Persecutions of Barbara Blaugdone, Blaugdone describes her experiences as a traveling Quaker minister, most often those of persecution and imprisonment. Imprisonment was not an uncommon occurrence for Quakers, as Blaugdone exemplifies. Traveling from town to town, Blaugdone notes, â€Å"I had Prison in all those Places† (12). Although the Quaker ideal of denouncing the clergy was not necessarily uncommon, the Quakers were much more zealous in their pursuit to spread the Truth, therefore much of their persecution was due to their own perseverance (Trevett 18). A common justification for Quaker imprisonment was blasphemy (Trevett 17). Elizabeth Hooton, a strong female figure in Quakerism, performed many of the same roles that Blaugdone did, and in return, she was imprisoned for merely reprimanding a priest (18). Hooton was arrested numerous times for activities such as public speaking, refusal to swear an oath in court, and disturbing the peace. In Blaugdone’s Account, disturbing the peace seems to be merely stepping foot in town. Numerous laws were also passed that enabled the arrest and persecution of Quakers, including The Blasphemy Act, The Conventicle Acts, The Five Mile Act and The Quaker Act. All of these laws basically prohibited Quakers from disrupting the ministry of the church (18). By challenging priests in their own churches, organizing and attending gatherings, and meeting with and preaching to others on street corners, Quakers broke the law. Blaugdone clearly took part in these ‘unlawful’ activities: â₠¬Å"And then I was moved to go to Great Torrington in Devonshire, unto the Steeple-house there, where was a very bad Priest† (Blaugdone 13). Of course her only outcome at talking to the priest was to be once again put in prison. By 1659, twenty-one Quakers had died in prison due to ill treatment, while countless others were crippled or their health had been permanently damaged (Trevett 18). Blaugdone reveals similar mistreatment in her Account: â€Å"and the nest day the Sheriff came with a Beadle, and had me into a Room, and Whipt me till the Blood ran down my Back† (15). Whipping was not the only form of punishment exercised against Quakers. Punishments included public humiliation, pelting, whipping sometimes after being stripped naked, fining family members, and confiscation of property (Trevett 21). Prison conditions were also quite inhuman, and prisoners depended upon either the good nature of guards of bribes.

Cognitive psychology Essay

Cognitive psychology focuses on how a person interprets a picture or message. For example, a double figure drawing such as the top down example below is one part of the cognitive thinking process. Another mental exercise is the bottom-up perception of drawings and messages.   Often times, the judge in court cases would ask the professional interpretation of the psychologist to help mitigate or aggravate the current sentence of a criminal offender. The following paragraphs explain in detail what cognitive psychology means. 1. what advice would you give a judge to persuade her or him of the potential danger of wrongful conviction based on eyewitness testimony as the sole or primary kind of evidence? Support your claim using cognitive psychology research. The judge should not base his sentencing only on the sole eyewitness’ statement. For, the judgment should be mitigated or aggravated by the professional opinion of the psychologist.  Ã‚   It is a standard procedure for the U.S. judge to ask the Forensic psychologist  Ã‚   to give a psychological profile of the defendant. The psychologist will then make a profile of the psychological well –being of the person charged in court. The psychologist then applies the theories of cognitive psychology to determine the behavior, pathology and motivation and submit his findings to the judge. The judge will then include the psychologist’s professional opinion increase the defendant’s sentence for aggravating reasons (Burke 1). On the other hand, the judge could also decrease the defendant’s sentence for mitigating reasons. And the psychologist’s findings will be used either as an aggravating or mitigating evidence.   Normally, the psychologist can draw up the behavioral tendencies of the defendant by viewing the other evidences on the crime scene, the statements of various witness, friends, neighbors and relatives and prior psychological findings.   The psychologist is very much needed in the juvenile courts because the child’s behavior is not as mature as those who are eighteen yrs old and above. Generally, the juveniles commit crimes because of their psychological growth is not normal ( or abnormal?), The psychologist can recommend to the judge to transfer the child to child rehabilitation center for psychological rehabilitation(Barsalou 5). Likewise, the psychologist can persuade the judge to lessen the sentence in adult criminal cases.   The psychologist can opine that the sexual offense was psychologically caused by the defendant’s state of mind at the time of the crime. He or she could have been abnormal then. The psychologist can recommend a plea bargaining agreement with the Judge using his psychological findings in order to reduce the sentence that has been mandated by the criminal laws of the United States( Berger 10). In addition, the psychologist can issue his opinion to the courts regarding the reliability of the lone witness’ psychological profile. For, the witness may not qualify as a lone witness if the psychologist opines that witness’ statements were hallucinations, a big lie, or simply made because of the witness had misinterpreted the situation as what is was not. The psychologist will then assess the stimuli – response   makeup (cognitive psychology) of the offender. The psychologist can also assess the criminal offender’s impulse control and potential for the individual to commit crimes. Likewise, the psychologist can opine to the judge that he defendant cannot psychologically defend himself or herself in the witness stand (Gillespie , 27). This will then be a ground to decrease the sentence of the defendant upon conviction. To reiterate, the psychologist can tell the court that the defendant was psychologically abnormal when he or she committed the crime. Thus, the judge must compulsorily use the psychologist’s evaluations of the defendants and the witnesses to plug the holes in his sentencing process. Also, the sex offenders would need the psychologist’s hand to help them. The psychologist would then tell the court that the sexual offender’s sentence be reduced to being jailed at the Adult Diagnostic and Treatment Center.   The psychologist would go about by stating that the defendant’s psychological makeup is the main cause of his continuing spree of sexual abuse cases. 2. Describe what implicit memory is. Based on Reber (1993) how is implicit learning and memory different from explicit learning and memory. Implicit memory states that prior experiences affect the current behavior of a person even though the person does not intentionally exert a single effort to ponder over his or her prior experiences.   Likewise, repressed memories of the past are equated with implicit memory.   For example, improving ones’ job performance falls under implicit memory and learning. This is the main reason why many companies prefer to hire and give higher salaries to people who have many years of hands –on experience behind them when they apply for a job. Definitely, a carpenter that has worked in house construction for the past twenty years would definitely be more skilled than a carpenter has tucked under his belt only one week’s hands –on experience.   Whereas, explicit memory is the conscious and intentional recalling of a person’s past experiences and informational data (French 26). A very clear example is trying to remember what today’s itinerary or hectic schedule is.   It would include a ride in the park with the family, a meeting with the board of directors in the company, or a customer dropping by to purchase new products. Another is trying to recall the details asked for in the Civil war classroom test. Further, trying to recall the ATM password or the email address log –in username and password when withdrawing money from the ATM machines falls under Explicit learning and memory. In short, explicit memory and learning entails effort exertion which includes thinking about one’s past experiences.   It also includes talking about one’s past experiences and writing them done. Further, it includes studying ones’ past experiences. For, they will surely increase one’s expertise on doing a specific job assignment (Esgate 15). Reber stated that implicit learning refers to the variances in the behavior of a person that is influenced by past experiences. However, the person is not aware or exerts effort to try to recall the past experiences. Reber proved his theory through countless experiments including probability learning.   His probability experiments prove that the subjects were able to recognize or learn the variance in probabilities of recurring events without their knowing that their prior experiences in the same situation have improved their changes of choosing the next probable event. One Reber experiment shows that the subjects were placed in a training phase. The subjects were told to observe   1,000 scenes at the rate of two scenes in one second in one experiment. The findings of this experiment shows that the subjects were able to learn what the next outcome would be in increasing accuracy as the test went on (Reder, and Schunn 46). Another Reber experiment shows that a person that solves several problems of the same will increase his or her speed and accuracy in solving such problems due to experience. However, the subjects were not aware of that their prior acts had influenced their current speed and accuracy. This is very true in classroom math exercises (Reder, and Schunn 69). Reber further emphasizes that memory and learning consists of conscious (Explicit) and unconscious (Implicit) learning processes (O’Brien-malone, and Maybery 38).   And, Reber insists that the questionnaire index test is an explicit learning process (O’Brien-malone, and Maybery 38). 3. Define what cognitive psychology is about. Cognitive Psychology is that branch of psychology that delves into the process of how a person uses his mind to find solutions to problems, memory as well as communication. It had metamorphosed from the Gestalt school of Max Wertheirmer, Wolfgang Kohler and Kurt Koffka. However, it was Jean   Piaget who increased interest in Cognitive Psychology with his theory that people have different cognitive processes from infancy to old age. Naturally, he emphasized that child cognitive learning is much different from a married person’s cognitive learning. Going deeper, cognitive psychology involves how the brain solves mathematical and other real life problems. And, the cognitive scientists believe that the problem solving cognitive process boils down to the basic stimulus and response theory.   For, each stimulus gives different responses to different people (Fleck, 6). What are the main topics? History. Cognitive psychology had branched out from mainline psychology into its own specialized field in the 1950s and 1960s as discussed in Donald Broadbent’s masterpiece entitled Perception and Communication in 1958.   It focused on the processing of information with the incorporation of Donald Broadbent’s paradigm theory. Basically it was a study on how a person thinks and reasons as he tackles each problem or situation in real life or in the classroom. Broadbent emphasized that the brain is a the central processing unit of the human being.   Then, George Miller created the WordNet which is the foundation for many machine ontologies today. This was also the basis that has permeated from cognitive psychology to other fields like social psychology, personality psychology, abnormal psychology,developmental psychology.   Currently, current cognitive theories are being attacked from many sides. One such side is the dynamic system proponents. Further, cognitive psychology has gathered the fruits of researches in artificial intelligence and other fields of expertise in the 1960s and the 1970s (Esgate 15). Major research areas.   Currently, the major research areas of cognitive psychology are general perception, psychophysics, attention, pattern recognition, object recognition and time sensation (Berger ). Cognitive psychologists.   The list of cognitive psychologists continues to grow through the years. Some of the more famous ones are Johan Anderson, Robbie Case, Lev Vygotsksy, Alan Baddeley, Frederic Barlett, Aaron T. Beck, Donald Broadbent, Reber, Jerome Bruner, Fergus, Craik, Keneth Craik, Hermann Ebbinghaus. Albert Ellis, and Jean Piaglet (Berger, 4). What are some basic assumptions? Cognitive process involves a stimulus and the corresponding response to such stimulus. Basically, cognitive theory states the problems in math and other real life situations can be easily accomplished with the use of algorithm. Algorithm is the set of rules that will give a specific solution for a set of inputs. For example, one plus one (inputs) is equal to two ( the algorithm here is to count how many ones are there). Here, the rules for cognitively solving problems are rather vague or too complex for the simple -minded person to comprehend.  Ã‚   Logically, there is another way of cognitively solving problems. This is what is called in psychology circles as heuristics. In sharp contrast, heuristics shows that the rules of solving classroom and real life problems are clearly understood but the final solution varies from one situation to another. What are some of the different methods employed by cognitive psychologists? The psychologists employ several methods to deepen their study of cognitive psychology. One such method is the scientific method. Another method is to use a person’s cognitive outfit in terms of belief, motivation and desire that are part of the mental processes. But, they always use subjects in their researches on how a person interprets a picture, a messages or other types of communication signals passing his or her way.